[Abstract] Peripheral plus central repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) for upper limb motor rehabilitation in chronic stroke – A case report

Introduction/Background

Motor dysfunction of the hand and upper limb is a major cause of physical disability for patients with chronic stroke. Our aim was to investigate the effectiveness of a peripheral plus central repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) treatment for upper limb motor rehabilitation in chronic stroke patients.

Material and method

We reported the case of a patient WLX, who had one ischemic stroke more than 3 years ago, and had underwent intermittent rehabilitation since then. He still had profound right upper limb paralysis and moderate spasm, accompanied with non-fluent aphasia when came to our department; and complained that his recovery had been rather slow for about two years. In addition to the custom rehabilitation, we applied a peripheral plus central rTMS paradigm to him, which included 3 sessions of peripheral magnetic stimulation to his paralyzed right forearm, followed by a session of high frequency rTMS to the bilateral sensorimotor cortex region. The total magnetic stimulation therapy lasted about 30 min a day, and was applied 5 days/week for 4 weeks.

Results

After 4 weeks’ treatment, the patient’s Fulg–Meyer upper limb assessment (FMA) score was obviously improved (from 27 to 37 points), and the spasm was largely relieved in his right hand and arm.

Conclusion

Peripheral plus central rTMS might be an effective treatment for motor dysfunction of chronic stroke patients.

via Peripheral plus central repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) for upper limb motor rehabilitation in chronic stroke – A case report – ScienceDirect

[Abstract] Combined effects of botulinum toxin type A and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation with intensive motor training immediately after injection in a patient with chronic stroke: A case report

Highlights

• •1-Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation with rehabilitation immediately after botulinum toxin type A injection in a stroke patient.
• •The spasticity, motor function, and usefulness of the paretic hand improved.
• •This is a possibility of shortening the intervention period of combined therapy.

Abstract

Study Design

Single case report.

Introduction

A previous study clarified that spasticity and motor function were improved by combined treatment with botulinum toxin type A (BTX) injection and 1-Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) with intensive motor training at 4 weeks after injection. However, it is not clear whether 1-Hz rTMS with intensive motor training immediately after BTX injection also improves spasticity and motor function in stroke patients.

Purpose of the Case Report

The purpose of this case report is to test the short- and long-term effects of BTX injection and rTMS with intensive motor training on the spasticity, motor function, and usefulness of the paretic hand in a stroke patient.

Methods

A 64-year-old male, who suffered from a right cerebral hemorrhage 53 months previously, participated in the present study. BTX was injected into the spastic muscles of the affected upper limb. He then received the new protocol for a total of 24 sessions. The Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS), Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA), and Motor Activity Log, consisting of the amount of use and quality of movement scales, were assessed before and immediately after BTX injection, at discharge, and monthly for up to 5 months after discharge.

Results

For the short-term effects of the therapy, the MAS scores of the elbow and wrist, FMA score, and quality of movement score improved. For the long-term effects of the therapy, the MAS score of the fingers, FMA score, and amount of use score improved for up to 5 months after discharge.

Conclusions

The present case report showed the improvement of all assessments performed in the short and/or long term and suggest the possibility of shortening the intervention period of combined therapy of BTX and rTMS with intensive motor training.

via Combined effects of botulinum toxin type A and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation with intensive motor training immediately after injection in a patient with chronic stroke: A case report – Journal of Hand Therapy

[ARTICLE] Combining Upper Limb Robotic Rehabilitation with Other Therapeutic Approaches after Stroke: Current Status, Rationale, and Challenges – Full Text

Abstract

A better understanding of the neural substrates that underlie motor recovery after stroke has led to the development of innovative rehabilitation strategies and tools that incorporate key elements of motor skill relearning, that is, intensive motor training involving goal-oriented repeated movements. Robotic devices for the upper limb are increasingly used in rehabilitation. Studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of these devices in reducing motor impairments, but less so for the improvement of upper limb function. Other studies have begun to investigate the benefits of combined approaches that target muscle function (functional electrical stimulation and botulinum toxin injections), modulate neural activity (noninvasive brain stimulation), and enhance motivation (virtual reality) in an attempt to potentialize the benefits of robot-mediated training. The aim of this paper is to overview the current status of such combined treatments and to analyze the rationale behind them.

1. Introduction

Significant advances have been made in the management of stroke (including prevention, acute management, and rehabilitation); however cerebrovascular diseases remain the third most common cause of death and the first cause of disability worldwide [1–6]. Stroke causes brain damage, leading to loss of motor function. Upper limb (UL) function is particularly reduced, resulting in disability. Many rehabilitation techniques have been developed over the last decades to facilitate motor recovery of the UL in order to improve functional ability and quality of life [7–10]. They are commonly based on principles of motor skill learning to promote plasticity of motor neural networks. These principles include intensive, repetitive, task-oriented movement-based training [11–19]. A better understanding of the neural substrates of motor relearning has led to the development of innovative strategies and tools to deliver exercise that meets these requirements. Treatments mostly target the neurological impairment (paresis, spasticity, etc.) through the activation of neural circuits or by acting on peripheral effectors. Robotic devices provide exercises that incorporate key elements of motor learning. Advanced robotic systems can offer highly repetitive, reproducible, interactive forms of training for the paretic limb, which are quantifiable. Robotic devices also enable easy and objective assessment of motor performance in standardized conditions by the recording of biomechanical data (i.e., speed, forces) [20–22]. This data can be used to analyze and assess motor recovery in stroke patients [23–26]. Since the 1990s, many other technology-based approaches and innovative pharmaceutical treatments have also been developed for rehabilitation, including virtual reality- (VR-) based systems, botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) injections, and noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) (Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)). There is currently no high-quality evidence to support any of these innovative interventions, despite the fact that some are used in routine practice [27]. By their respective mechanisms of action, each of these treatments could potentiate the effects of robotic therapy, leading to greater improvements in motor capacity. The aim of this paper is to review studies of combined treatments based on robotic rehabilitation and to analyze the rationale behind such approaches.[…]

 

Continue —> Combining Upper Limb Robotic Rehabilitation with Other Therapeutic Approaches after Stroke: Current Status, Rationale, and Challenges

[Poster] Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) application in cognitive deficits after Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)/concussion

Objective: The objective of this study is to review current literature for the efficacy of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) treatment for cognitive deficits after Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)/concussion.

Background: TBI is a major public health problem and can cause substantial disability. TBI can lead to Post Concussive Syndrome (PCS) which consists of neuro-motor, cognitive, behavioral/affective, and emotional symptoms. Cognitive deficits can significantly impact functionality. The outcome of neuropsychopharmacological treatment is limited, with risk for side effects. TMS is a form of non-invasive neuromodulation which is FDA-approved for treatment-resistant depression. However, there is limited understanding about its application in addressing cognitive deficits after TBI. We therefore sought to examine current research pertaining to the application of TMS in post-TBI cognitive deficits.

Methods: We searched the PubMed research database with the specific terms “TMS in cognitive deficits after TBI”, “rTMS” and “post concussive syndrome.” We assessed clinical trials where cognition was measured either as a primary or secondary variable. Case studies/reports were excluded.

Results: One non-controlled, pilot study was found that assessed cognition after TMS as a secondary variable in TBI. The aim of the study was to assess safety, tolerability and efficacy of repetitive TMS for treatment of PCS after mild TBI (mTBI). Patients who had sustained mTBI over three months prior and had a PCS Symptom Scale score of over 21 were selected. Repetitive TMS (rTMS) was used as the intervention with 20 sessions of rTMS using a figure-8 coil attached to MagPro stimulator. Cognitive symptoms were assessed using subjective self-report scales and objective tests for attention and speed of processing domains. Neuropsychological tests that were used include Trails A & B, Ruff’s 2 & 7 Automatic speed test, Stroop test, Language test for phonemic, and category fluency, Rey AVLT test. The study showed a reduction in overall severity of PCS symptoms but no significant changes on the cognitive symptoms questionnaire or on the majority of neuropsychological test scores.

Conclusion: Despite the limitation in this study with the lack of a control group, there appears to be a good signal for the clinical application of TMS for post-concussive syndrome after TBI/concussion. A more robust, large well-controlled study may be very reasonable approach in the future to evaluate efficacy of rTMS.

References

1. Koski L1, Kolivakis T, Yu C, Chen JK, Delaney S, Ptito A. Noninvasive brain stimulation for persistent postconcussion symptoms in mild traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2015 Jan 1;32(1):38-44. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2014.3449.

2. Bashir S1, Vernet M, Yoo WK, Mizrahi I, Theoret H, Pascual-Leone A. Changes in cortical plasticity after mild traumatic brain injury. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2012;30(4):277-82. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-2012-110207.

3. Demirtas-Tatlidede A1, Vahabzadeh-Hagh AM, Bernabeu M, Tormos JM, Pascual-Leone A.Noninvasive brain stimulation in traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2012 Jul-Aug;27(4):274-92. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0b013e318217df55.

4. Neville IS, Hayashi CY, El Hajj SA, Zaninotto AL, Sabino JP, Sousa LM Jr, Nagumo MM, Brunoni AR, Shieh BD, Amorim RL, Teixeira MJ, Paiva WS. Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) for the cognitive rehabilitation of traumatic brain injury (TBI) victims: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2015 Oct 5;16:440. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-015-0944-2.

via Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) application in cognitive deficits after Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)/concussion – Brain Stimulation: Basic, Translational, and Clinical Research in Neuromodulation

[WEB SITE] Stroke survivors may benefit from magnetic brain stimulation

A new meta-analysis of existing studies shows that a technique called repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation might be a useful tool to help stroke survivors regain the ability to walk independently.

A brain stimulation technique may help stroke survivors walk faster and more easily.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique; magnetic coils are placed on a person’s scalp, and short electromagnetic pulses are delivered to specific brain areas through the coil.

Although these pulses only cause an almost imperceptible “knocking or tapping” sensation for the patient undergoing the procedure, they reach into the brain, triggering electric currents that stimulate neurons.

rTMS has mainly been used to treat psychosis, depression, anxiety, and other mood disorders with a fair degree of success. In a recent study, more than one third of people living with auditory verbal hallucinations — a marker of schizophrenia — reported a reduction in their symptoms following the procedure.

But researchers have also been delving into the potential that the technique has for improving life after stroke. Four years ago, for instance, a team of researchers at The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center in Columbus used rTMS to improve arm movement in people who had experienced a stroke, and more studies have explored this therapeutic potential since.

Now, a team of researchers — jointly led by Dr. Chengqi He, of Sichuan University in the People’s Republic of China, and Shasha Li, of Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, both in Boston, MA — set out to review these studies.

Dr. He and colleagues wanted to see if the technique improved motor skills for people who had stroke; to do so, the researchers examined the impact rTMS has on walking speed, balance, and other key factors for post-stroke rehabilitation.

The findings were published in the American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, the official journal of the Association of Academic Physiatrists.

rTMS ‘significantly improves walking speed’

Dr. He and team reviewed nine studies of rTMS — including five randomized controlled trials — which were published between 2012 and 2017.

The people who participated in these studies had either had an ischemic stroke — that is, a stroke caused by a blood clot in one of the brain’s arteries — or a hemorrhagic stroke — that is, one caused by bleeding within the brain.

Of the nine studies, six included data on the walking speed of 139 stroke survivors. The researchers carried out a pooled analysis of these studies, and the results revealed that rTMS “significantly improves walking speed.”

This improvement was greater among people who received stimulation on the same side of the brain that the stroke occurred. By contrast, those who received rTMS on the opposite side did not see any improvement.

Other key health outcomes for stroke survivors such as balance, motor function, or brain responsiveness did not show any improvement as a result of rTMS.

In the United States, it is estimated that almost 800,000 people annually have a stroke, which makes the condition a leading cause of long-term disability in the country. More than half of the seniors who survived a stroke have reduced mobility as a result.

Although the review shows that rTMS is a promising strategy for restoring independent walking, the authors say that more research is needed. Dr. He and colleagues conclude:

“Future studies with larger sample sizes and an adequate follow-up period are required to further investigate the effects of rTMS on lower limb function and its relationship with changes in cortical excitability with the help of functional neuroimaging techniques.”

via Stroke survivors may benefit from magnetic brain stimulation

[Review] Current evidence on transcranial magnetic stimulation and its potential usefulness in post-stroke neurorehabilitation: Opening new doors to the treatment of cerebrovascular disease – Full Text

Abstract

Introduction

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a therapeutic reality in post-stroke rehabilitation. It has a neuroprotective effect on the modulation of neuroplasticity, improving the brain’s capacity to retrain neural circuits and promoting restoration and acquisition of new compensatory skills.

Development

We conducted a literature search on PubMed and also gathered the latest books, clinical practice guidelines, and recommendations published by the most prominent scientific societies concerning the therapeutic use of rTMS in the rehabilitation of stroke patients. The criteria of the International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology (2014) were followed regarding the inclusion of all evidence and recommendations.

Conclusions

Identifying stroke patients who are eligible for rTMS is essential to accelerate their recovery. rTMS has proven to be safe and effective for treating stroke complications. Functional brain activity can be optimised by applying excitatory or inhibitory electromagnetic pulses to the hemisphere ipsilateral or contralateral to the lesion, respectively, as well as at the level of the transcallosal pathway to regulate interhemispheric communication. Different studies of rTMS in these patients have resulted in improvements in motor disorders, aphasia, dysarthria, oropharyngeal dysphagia, depression, and perceptual-cognitive deficits. However, further well-designed randomised controlled clinical trials with larger sample size are needed to recommend with a higher level of evidence, proper implementation of rTMS use in stroke subjects on a widespread basis.

Introduction

Stroke patients should receive early neurorehabilitation after convalescence. For many years, researchers have aimed to identify new therapeutic targets to hasten recovery from stroke. However, we continue to lack a universally accepted, approved pharmacological therapy for these patients.^{1; 2; 3; 4 ;  5} After stroke, organisational changes in brain interneuronal activity in the affected area and the surrounding healthy tissue may on occasion promote functional recovery. Neurorehabilitation may help achieve this aim. Unfortunately, there are also occasions when neural reorganisation is suboptimal; in these cases, the problem persists and becomes chronic. In this context, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) emerged as a tool for studying the brain and has been used since the mid-1980s to treat certain neuropsychiatric disorders. Neurorehabilitation is based on the idea that the brain is a dynamic entity able to adapt to internal and external homeostatic changes. This adaptive capacity, called neuroplasticity, is also present in patients with acquired brain injuries. The degree of recovery and the functional prognosis of these patients depend on the extent of neuroplastic changes.^{1; 2; 3; 4; 5 ;  6} When performed by experienced physicians, TMS is a safe, non-invasive technique which enables the organisation of these neural changes (Fig. 1). The technique’s applications are expanding rapidly.^{1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8 ;  9}

Figure 1.

Modern TMS device.

We present the results of a literature review of the most relevant articles, manuals, and clinical practice guidelines addressing TMS (background information, diagnostic and therapeutic uses, and especially its usefulness for stroke neurorehabilitation) and published between 1985 (when the technique was first used) and 2015.

 

Development

The organisation of language in the brain

The left hemisphere of the brain is the anatomo-functional seat of language in 96% of right-handed and 70% of left-handed individuals. Language processing in the left hemisphere involves certain anatomical pathways for language comprehension, repetition, and production (Fig. 2). Positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies conducted during multiple language tasks have shown brain activation not only in the main language centres (lesions to these areas may cause Broca aphasia, Wernicke aphasia, etc.) (Fig. 3) but also in many other locations, such as the thalamus (alertness), the basal ganglia (motor modulation), and the limbic system (affect and memory). Language is the perfect model for understanding how the central nervous system works as a whole.^{10 ;  11}

Figure 2. The functional pathways involved in comprehension, repetition, and production of written, gesture, and spoken language, according to the Wernicke-Geschwind model. Within the left hemisphere, language organisation follows certain anatomical pathways for language comprehension, repetition, and production. Sounds are processed by the bilateral auditory cortex, in the superior temporal gyrus (primary auditory area), and decoded in the posterior area of the left temporal cortex (Wernicke area); the latter is connected to other cortical areas or networks which assign meaning to words. During reading, output from the primary visual area (bilaterally) travels to other parieto-occipital association areas for word and phrase recognition (especially the left fusiform gyrus, located in the inferior surface of the temporal lobe, where there is a key word recognition centre) and reaches the angular gyrus, which processes language-related visual and auditory information. In spontaneous language repetition and production, auditory information must travel through the arcuate fasciculus towards the left inferior frontal region (Broca area), which is responsible for language production; this area is also known to be involved in such other functions as action comprehension (mirror neurons). To produce written or spoken language, output from the Wernicke area, the Broca area, and nearby association areas must reach the primary motor cortex.^{10 ;  11}
Adapted with permission from Bear et al.¹⁰

[…]

Continue —> Current evidence on transcranial magnetic stimulation and its potential usefulness in post-stroke neurorehabilitation: Opening new doors to the treatment of cerebrovascular disease

[PINTEREST Board] transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS), Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

 

[ARTICLE] Plasticity induced by non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation: A position paper – Full Text

Abstract

Several techniques and protocols of non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation (NIBS), including transcranial magnetic and electrical stimuli, have been developed in the past decades. Non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation may modulate cortical excitability outlasting the period of non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation itself from several minutes to more than one hour. Quite a few lines of evidence, including pharmacological, physiological and behavioral studies in humans and animals, suggest that the effects of non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation are produced through effects on synaptic plasticity. However, there is still a need for more direct and conclusive evidence. The fragility and variability of the effects are the major challenges that non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation currently faces. A variety of factors, including biological variation, measurement reproducibility and the neuronal state of the stimulated area, which can be affected by factors such as past and present physical activity, may influence the response to non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation. Work is ongoing to test whether the reliability and consistency of non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation can be improved by controlling or monitoring neuronal state and by optimizing the protocol and timing of stimulation.

1. Introduction

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) are the most commonly used methods of non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation that has been abbreviated by previous authors as either as NIBS or NTBS. Here we use NIBS since it seems to be the most common term at the present time. When it was first introduced in 1985, TMS was employed primarily as a tool to investigate the integrity and function of the human corticospinal system (Barker et al., 1985). Single pulse stimulation was used to elicit motor evoked potentials (MEPs) that were easily evoked and measured in contralateral muscles (Rothwell et al., 1999). The robustness and repeatability of measures of conduction time, stimulation threshold and “hot spot” location allowed TMS to be developed into a standard tool in clinical neurophysiology.

As we review below, a number of NIBS protocols can lead to effects on brain excitability that outlast the period of stimulation. These may reflect basic synaptic mechanisms involving long-term potentiation (LTP)- or long-term depression (LTD)-like plasticity, and because of this there has been great interest in using the methods as therapeutic interventions in neurological and psychiatric diseases. Furthermore, recently they are more frequently applied to modify memory processes and to enhance cognitive function in healthy individuals. However, apart from success in treating some patients with depression (Lefaucheur et al., 2014; Padberg et al., 2002, 1999), there is little consensus that they have improved outcomes in a clinically meaningful fashion in any other conditions. The reason for this is probably linked to the reason why many other protocols failed to reach routine clinical neurophysiology: they are too variable both within and between individuals to make them practically useful in a health service setting (Goldsworthy et al., 2014; Hamada et al., 2013; Lopez-Alonso et al., 2014, 2015).

Below we review the evidence for the mechanisms underlying the “neuroplastic” effects of NIBS, and then consider the problems in reproducibility and offer some potential ways forward in research. […]

Continue —> Plasticity induced by non-invasive transcranial brain stimulation: A position paper – ScienceDirect

Fig. 1. There are three major lines of evidence supporting NIBS produces effects through mechanisms of synaptic plasticity: (1) Drugs that modulate the function of critical receptors/channels for plasticity, e.g. Ca2+ channels and NMDA receptors, alter the effect of NIBS; (2) NIBS mainly changes I-waves rather than the D-wave in the epidural recording of descending volleys evoked by TMS, suggesting the effect of NIBS occurs trans-synaptically; and (3) NIBS interacts between protocols and with motor practice and cognitive learning processes, suggesting the effect of NIBS is involves in plasticity-related motor and psychological processes.

[Abstract] Combined rTMS and virtual reality brain-computer interface training for motor recovery after stroke

Abstract

Objective. Combining repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) with brain-computer interface (BCI) training can address motor impairment after stroke by down-regulating exaggerated inhibition from the contralesional hemisphere and encouraging ipsilesional activation. The objective was to evaluate the efficacy of combined rTMS+BCI, compared to sham rTMS+BCI, on motor recovery after stroke in subjects with lasting motor paresis. Approach. Three stroke subjects approximately one year post-stroke participated in three weeks of combined rTMS (real or sham) and BCI, followed by three weeks of BCI alone. Behavioral and electrophysiological differences were evaluated at baseline, after three weeks, and after six weeks of treatment. Main Results. Motor improvements were observed in both real rTMS+BCI and sham groups, but only the former showed significant alterations in inter-hemispheric inhibition in the desired direction and increased relative ipsilesional cortical activation from fMRI. In addition, significant improvements in BCI performance over time and adequate control of the virtual reality BCI paradigm were observed only in the former group. Significance. When combined, the results highlight the feasibility and efficacy of combined rTMS+BCI for motor recovery, demonstrated by increased ipsilesional motor activity and improvements in behavioral function for the real rTMS+BCI condition in particular. Our findings also demonstrate the utility of BCI training alone, as demonstrated by behavioral improvements for the sham rTMS+BCI condition. This study is the first to evaluate combined rTMS and BCI training for motor rehabilitation and provides a foundation for continued work to evaluate the potential of both rTMS and virtual reality BCI training for motor recovery after stroke.

Source: Combined rTMS and virtual reality brain-computer interface training for motor recovery after stroke – IOPscience

[Abstract] Virtual reality and non-invasive brain stimulation in stroke: How effective is their combination for upper limb motor improvement?

Abstract:

Upper limb (UL) hemiparesis is frequently a disabling consequence of stroke. The ability to improve UL functioning is associated with motor relearning and experience dependent neuroplasticity. Interventions such as non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) and task-practice in virtual environments (VEs) can influence motor relearning as well as adaptive plasticity. However, the effectiveness of a combination of NIBS and task-practice in VEs on UL motor improvement has not been systematically examined. The objective of this review was to examine the evidence regarding the effectiveness of combining NIBS with task-practice in VEs on UL motor impairment and activity levels. A systematic review of the published literature was conducted using standard methodology. Study quality was assessed using the PEDro scale and Down’s and Black checklist. Four studies examining the effects of a combination of NIBS (involving transcranial direct current stimulation; tDCS and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation; rTMS) were retrieved. Of these, three studies were randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and one was a cross-sectional study. There was 1a level evidence that the combination of NIBS and task-practice in a VE was beneficial in the sub-acute stage. A combination of training in a VE with rTMS as well as tDCS was beneficial for motor improvements in the UL in sub-acute stage of stroke (1b level). The combination was not found to be superior compared to task practice in VEs alone in the chronic stage (1b level). The results suggest that people with stroke may be capable of improving levels of motor impairment and activity in the sub-acute stage if their rehabilitation program involves a combination on NIBS and VE training. Emergent questions regarding the use of more sensitive outcomes, different types of stimulation parameters, locations and training environments still need to be addressed.

Published in: Virtual Rehabilitation (ICVR), 2017 International Conference on

Source: Virtual reality and non-invasive brain stimulation in stroke: How effective is their combination for upper limb motor improvement? – IEEE Xplore Document